With that judgment in mind it is interesting to note comments on the Australian Immunisation Register Bill 2015 (Cth) and Australian Immunisation Register (Consequential and Transitional Provisions) Bill 2015 (Cth) by the Parliamentary Joint Committee on Human Rights in its latest report.
The Australian Immunisation Register Bill 2015 (the bill) creates a new legislative framework for the operation of Australian immunisation registers, and repeals existing registers established under the Health Insurance Act 1973 and the National Health Act 1953.
The Australian Immunisation Register (Consequential and Transitional Provisions) Bill 2015 provides for the consequential and transitional provisions required to support the operation of the Australian Immunisation Register Act 2015.
Together these bills provide for the expansion of immunisation registers in two stages: From 1 January 2016 the Australian Childhood Immunisation Register (ACIR) will be expanded, so as to collect and record all vaccinations given to young people under the age of 20 years (currently only vaccinations given to children aged under seven years are collected and recorded); and From late 2016 the register will be renamed the Australian Immunisation Register (AIR) and will collect and record all vaccinations given to every person in Australia from birth to death.
Measures raising human rights concerns or issues are set out below.
Use and disclosure of personal information from the Australian Immunisation Register
Under the bills, from late 2016 all persons in Australia enrolled in medicare and, if not eligible for medicare, anyone vaccinated in Australia, will be automatically registered on the AIR. This will include the vast majority of people in Australia, including those that choose not to receive vaccinations. The AIR can include significant personal information. This includes contact details, medicare number, vaccination status, general practitioner information regarding non-vaccination status and other information relevant to vaccinations.
The committee considers that the use and disclosure of personal information engages and limits the right to privacy.
Right to privacy
Article 17 of the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights (ICCPR) prohibits arbitrary or unlawful interferences with an individual's privacy, family, correspondence or home. The right to privacy includes respect for informational privacy, including: the right to respect for private and confidential information, particularly the storing, use and sharing of such information; and the right to control the dissemination of information about one's private life.
However, this right may be subject to permissible limitations which are provided by law and are not arbitrary. In order for limitations not to be arbitrary, they must seek to achieve a legitimate objective and be reasonable, necessary and proportionate to achieving that objective.
Compatibility of the measure with the right to privacy
The statement of compatibility for the bill acknowledges that the bill engages the right to privacy but states:
The authorisations of used [sic] and disclosure of personal information are reasonable, appropriate and necessary for the objectives and purposes of the Bill and adequately describes persons who are requiring access to the immunisation Register to achieve the objectives of the Register. The provisions in the Bill also provide individuals with freedom to access their own personal information. The limiting provisions surrounding the access of personal information are well described. The limitations for purposes for which the information can be disclosed are a reasonable and proportionate use of individual's personal information.
The committee notes that while the statement of compatibility does not explicitly set out the objectives of the bill, the objectives of the bill appear to include facilitating the establishment of records of vaccinations which will assist with information about vaccination coverage; monitoring the effectiveness of vaccinations; identifying areas of Australia at risk during disease outbreaks; and promoting health and well-being. The committee considers that these objectives are likely to be considered legitimate objectives for the purposes of international human rights law, and the inclusion of information on the AIR is likely to be rationally connected to these objectives.
However, it is unclear whether all of the powers enabling the use, recording and disclosure of information are proportionate to achieving those objectives. In particular, the committee is concerned about the ability of the minister (or his or her delegate) to authorise a person to use or disclose protected personal information for a purpose that the minister (or delegate) is satisfied is in the public interest. This power is in addition to the other powers under subclause 22(2), which provides detailed authorisation for the use and disclosure of protected information to specified persons or bodies and for specified purposes.
The statement of compatibility does not explain why it is necessary to include this broadly defined power. Rather, it states:
The Minister (or his or her delegate) may also disclose personal information if they are satisfied that it is in the public interest to do so. An example is where a child protection agency requests information when investigating the welfare of a child. Section 23 of the Bill creates an offence for making a record, using or disclosing personal information where not authorised. In the 2014-2015 financial year, more than 18,000 authorisations occurred for this purpose.
Under international human rights law, when considering whether a limitation on a right is proportionate to achieve the stated objective it is necessary to consider whether there are other less restrictive ways to achieve the same aim. It is not clear why it is necessary to have such a broad power to enable disclosure to any person if it is considered to be 'in the public interest', in addition to the already expansive powers to authorise the use or disclosure of information under subclause 22(3) of the bill. If the intention is to allow child protection agencies to access the information, the provision could have been drafted more narrowly. The committee also notes that the statement of compatibility says that in one year, 18 000 authorisations for disclosure were made under the existing legislation. It would assist the committee to understand more about what type of authorisations these were, to whom and for what purpose.
It is also of note that the explanatory memorandum refers to disclosure being limited to 'a specified person or to a specified class of persons',5 however, clause 22(3) is not limited in this way but allows the minister to authorise 'a person' to use or disclose protected information.
The committee's assessment of the measure authorising the use or disclosure of protected information against article 17 of the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights (right to privacy) raises questions as to whether the measure adopts the least rights restrictive approach.
As set out above, the measure authorising the use or disclosure of protected information engages and limits the right to privacy. The statement of compatibility does not sufficiently justify that limitation for the purposes of international human rights law. The committee therefore seeks the advice of the Minister for Health as to whether the limitation is a reasonable and proportionate measure for the achievement of that objective, in particular whether the measure is sufficiently circumscribed to ensure it operates in the least rights restrictive manner.
Reversal of the burden of proof
Clause 23 of the bill makes it an offence for a person to make a record of, disclose or otherwise use protected information if that record, use or disclosure is not authorised by the bill. Clauses 24 to 27 provide a number of exceptions to this offence, including if the use is in good faith, the person is unaware that information is commercial-in-confidence, that the disclosure was to the person to whom the information relates or to the person who provided the information. These exceptions reverse the burden of proof, requiring the defendant to bear an evidential burden if relying on these defences.
The committee considers that the reversal of the burden of proof engages and limits the right to a fair trial (presumption of innocence).
Right to a fair trial (presumption of innocence)
The right to a fair trial and fair hearing is protected by article 14 of the ICCPR. Article 14(2) of the ICCPR protects the right to be presumed innocent until proven guilty according to law. Generally, consistency with the presumption of innocence requires the prosecution to prove each element of a criminal offence beyond reasonable doubt.
An offence provision which requires the defendant to carry an evidential or legal burden of proof, commonly referred to as 'a reverse burden', with regard to the existence of some fact engages and limits the presumption of innocence. This is because a defendant's failure to discharge the burden of proof may permit their conviction despite reasonable doubt as to their guilt.
Where a statutory exception, defence or excuse to an offence is provided in proposed legislation, these defences or exceptions must be considered as part of a contextual and substantive assessment of potential limitations on the right to be presumed innocent in the context of an offence provision. Reverse burden offences will be likely to be compatible with the presumption of innocence where they are shown by legislation proponents to be reasonable, necessary and proportionate in pursuit of a legitimate objective. Claims of greater convenience or ease for the prosecution in proving a case will be insufficient, in and of themselves, to justify a limitation on the defendant's right to be presumed innocent.
Compatibility of the measure with the right to a fair trial
The statement of compatibility for the bill does not acknowledge that the right to a fair trial is engaged by these measures. The explanatory memorandum to the bill also provides no justification for these measures.
The committee's usual expectation where a measure may limit a human right is that the accompanying statement of compatibility provide a reasoned and evidence-based explanation of how the measure supports a legitimate objective for the purposes of international human rights law. This conforms with the committee's Guidance Note 1, and the Attorney-General's Department's guidance on the preparation of statements of compatibility, which states that the 'existence of a legitimate objective must be identified clearly with supporting reasons and, generally, empirical data to demonstrate that [it is] important'. To be capable of justifying a proposed limitation of human rights, a legitimate objective must address a pressing or substantial concern and not simply seek an outcome regarded as desirable or convenient. Additionally, a limitation must be rationally connected to, and a proportionate way to achieve, its legitimate objective in order to be justifiable in international human rights law.
The committee's assessment of the reversal of the burden of proof against article 14 of the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights (right to a fair trial) raises questions as to whether the measure is justifiable.
As set out above, the reversal of the burden of proof engages and limits the right to a fair trial. The statement of compatibility does not justify that limitation for the purposes of international human rights law. The committee therefore seeks the advice of the Minister for Health as to: whether the proposed changes are aimed at achieving a legitimate objective; whether there is a rational connection between the limitation and that objective; and whether the limitation is a reasonable and proportionate measure for the achievement of that objective. 6
